Ishmael is a 1992 philosophical novel by Daniel Quinn. It examines mythology, its effect on ethics, and how that relates to sustainability. The novel uses a style of Socratic dialogue to deconstruct the notion that humans are the end product, the pinnacle of biological evolution. It posits that human supremacy is a cultural myth, and asserts that modern civilization is enacting that myth.

Ishmael was awarded the $500,000 Turner Tomorrow Fellowship Award. The book is the first of a trilogy including The Story of B and My Ishmael.

Plot summary

The story begins with a newspaper ad: "Teacher seeks pupil, must have an earnest desire to save the world. Apply in person." The narrator responds at first with disgust because of the absurdity of "wanting to
save the world", but decides to answer the ad out of nostalgia for his
adolescence during the 1960s children's revolts. Upon arriving at the
address, he finds himself in a room with a gorilla. He notices a sign that reads "With man gone will there be hope for gorilla?"

To the man's surprise he finds that the gorilla, Ishmael, can communicate telepathically. At first baffled by this, the man learns the story of how the gorilla came to be this way and he accepts Ishmael as his teacher. The novel
continues from this point as a Socratic
dialogue between Ishmael and his student as they hash out what Ishmael
refers to as "how things came to be this way" for mankind.

Ishmael's life, which began in the African wilderness, was spent mostly in a zoo and a menagerie, and since had been spent in the gazebo of a man that extricated him from physical captivity. He tells his student that it was at the
menagerie that he learned about human language and culture and began to
think about things that he never would have pondered in the wild.
Subsequently, Ishmael tells his student that the subject for this
learning experience will be captivity, primarily the captivity of man
under a distorted civilizational system. The narrator has a vague notion
that he is living in some sort of captivity and being lied to in some
way but he can not explain his feelings.

Ishmael uses the example of Nazi Germany to show that men are either held captive with the mythology of being superior, or "an animal swept up in the stampede" of the captivity of
those around them.

Before proceeding Ishmael lays some ground definitions for his student. He defines:

• Takers as people often referred to as "civilized." Particularly, the culture born in an Agricultural Revolution that began about 10,000 years ago in the Near East; the culture of Ishmael's pupil.
• Leavers as people of all other cultures; sometimes referred to as "primitive."
• A story as an interrelation between the gods, man, and the earth, with a beginning, middle, and end.
• To enact is to strive to make a story come true.
• A culture as a people who are enacting a story.

Ishmael proceeds to tease from his pupil the premises of the story being enacted by the Takers: that they are the pinnacle of evolution, that the world was made for man, and that man is here to conquer and rule the world. This rule is meant to bring about a paradise, as man
increases his mastery of the world, however, he is always failing
because he is flawed. Man doesn't know how to live and never will
because that knowledge is unobtainable. So, however hard he labors to
save the world, he is just going to go on defiling and spoiling it.

Ishmael points out to his student that when the Takers decided there is something fundamentally wrong with humans, they took as evidence only their own culture's history- "They were looking at a half of
one-percent of the evidence taken from a single culture-- Not a
reasonable sample on which to base such a sweeping conclusion."

Ishmael says:

"There's nothing fundamentally wrong with people. Given a story to enact that puts them in accord with the world, they will live in accord with the world. But given a story to enact that puts them at odds with
the world, as yours does, they will live at odds with the world. Given a
story to enact in which they are the lords of the world, they will act as
the lords of the world. And, given a story to enact in which the world
is a foe to be conquered, they will conquer it like a foe, and one day,
inevitably, their foe will lie bleeding to death at their feet, as the
world is now."

Ishmael goes on to help his student discover that, contrary to what the Takers think, there are immutable laws that life is subject to and it is possible to discern them by studying the biological community. Together, Ishmael and his student identify one
set of survival strategies which appear to be evolutionarily stable for
all species (later dubbed the Law of Limited Competition):
In short, "you may compete to the full extent of your capabilities, but
you may not hunt down competitors or destroy their food or deny them
access to food. In other words, you may compete but you may not wage
war." All species inevitably follow this law, or as a consequence go
extinct. The Takers believe themselves to be exempt from this Law and
flout it at every point.

Ishmael goes on to help his pupil discover just how the Takers rendered themselves above the laws governing all of life. As an example, he brings up the story of The Fall of Man and tells a tale which explains why the fruit was forbidden to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden: Eating the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil
provides the gods with the knowledge they need to rule the world- the
knowledge of who shall live and who shall die. The fruit nourishes only
gods, however, the gods saw that if Adam ("man") were to eat from this
tree, he might think that he gained the gods' wisdom and in his
arrogance, destroy the world and himself. "And so they said to him, you
may eat of every tree in the garden, save the Tree of the Knowledge of
Good and Evil, for on the day you eat of that tree, you will certainly
die."

Ishmael makes the point that this story of the Fall of Man, which the Takers have adopted as their own, was in fact developed by Leavers to explain the origin of the Takers. If it were of Taker origin,
the story would be of liberating ascent instead of a sinful fall.

Ishmael and his student go on to discuss how, for the ancient Semitic herders among whom the tale originated, the story of Cain killing Abel symbolizes the Leaver being killed off and their lands taken so that it could be put under cultivation. These ancient herders realized that the
Takers were acting as if they were gods themselves, with all the wisdom
of what is good and evil and how to rule the world. And as a result the
gods banished these people from the Garden and they were brought from a
life of bounty in the hands of the gods to one of being the accursed
tillers of the soil.

To begin discerning the Leavers' story, Ishmael proposes to his student a hypothesis: the Takers' Agricultural Revolution was a revolution against the Leavers' story.

The Leavers take what they need from the world and leave the rest alone. Living in this manner ("in the hands of the gods"), Leavers thrive in times of abundance and dwindle in times of scarcity. The
Takers however, practicing their unique form of agriculture (dubbed by
Quinn, Totalitarian agriculture)
produce enormous food surpluses, which allows them to thwart the gods
when they decide it's the Takers' time to go hungry. "When you have more
food than you need, then the gods have no power over you." Thus,
Ishmael points out that the Takers revolution was not just a
technological change, but also serves a mythological function.

"So we have a new pair of names for you: The Takers are 'those who know good and evil' and the Leavers are 'those who live in the hands of the gods'."

Ishmael goes on to point out that by living in the hands of the gods, man is subject to the conditions under which evolution takes place. Australopithecus became Homo by living in the hands of the gods—Man became man by living in the hands of the gods-- "by living the way the bushmen of Africa live; by living the way the Krenakarore of Brazil live... Not the way the Chicagoans live, not the way Londoners live." "In the hands
of the gods is where evolution
happens." According to the Takers' story, creation came to an end with
man. "In order to make their story come true, the Takers have to put an
end to creation itself-- and they're doing a damn good job of it!"

Ishmael brings together his synopsis on human culture by examining the story enacted by Leaver cultures, which provides a model of how to live—an alternative story for the Takers to enact.

"The premise of the Takers' story is 'The world belongs to man.' ...The premise of the Leavers' story is 'Man belongs to the world.'"

"For three million years, man belonged to the world and because he belonged to the world, he grew and developed and became brighter and more dexterous until one day, he was so bright and so dexterous that we
had to call him Homo sapiens sapiens-- which means he was us."

"The Leavers' story is 'the gods made man for the world, the same way they made salmon and sparrows for the world. This seems to have worked well so far so we can take it easy and leave the running of the
world to the gods'."

Ishmael emphasizes that "not in any sense is the Takers story 'chapter two' of the story which was being enacted here during the first three million years of human life. The Leavers' story has its own
'chapter two'." In evolution, observes Ishmael's student, there seems to
be a tendency toward complexity, and towards self-awareness and
intelligence. Perhaps the gods intend the world to be filled with
intelligent, self-aware creatures and man's destiny following the
Leavers' story is "to be the first- without being the last"; to learn
and then to be a role-model and teacher for all those capable of
becoming what he's become.

Ishmael finishes with a summary of what his student can do if he earnestly desires to save the world:

"The story of Genesis must be undone. First, Cain must stop murdering Abel. This is essential if you're to survive. The Leavers are the endangered species most critical to the world - not because they're
humans but because they alone can show the destroyers of the world that
there is more than one right way to live. And then, of course, you must
spit out the fruit of the forbidden tree. You must absolutely and
forever relinquish the idea that you know who should live and who should
die on this planet."

"Teach a hundred what I've taught you, and inspire each of them to teach a hundred." The book ends with the death of Ishmael and when the pupil goes back he finds the sign that he saw in Ishmael's office, but there's a change on
the back. The back says: "With gorilla gone, will there be hope for
man?"

Follow-ups to Ishmael by Daniel Quinn include The Story of B, My Ishmael, and Beyond Civilization. Quinn's autobiography is entitled Providence: The Story of a 50 Year Vision Quest and details how the author arrived at the ideas behind Ishmael.

Major themes

Ishmael proposes that the story of Genesis was written by the Semites, and later adapted to work within Hebrew and Christian belief structures. Ishmael proposes that Abel and his
extinction metaphorically represents the nomadic Semites and their
losing conflict with agriculturalists. As they were driven further into
the Arabian peninsula, the Semites became isolated from other herding
cultures and, according to Ishmael, illustrated their plight through
oral history, which was later adopted into the Hebrew book of Genesis.

Ishmael denies that the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil was forbidden to humans simply to test humans' self-control. Instead, Ishmael proposes that the Tree represents the choice to bear the burden
of responsibility of deciding which species may live and which should
die. This is a necessary decision agricultural peoples must make when
deciding which organisms to cultivate, which to displace, and which to
kill in protection of the first.

Ishmael explains that the Fall of Adam represents the Semitic belief that once mankind usurps this responsibility - historically decided through natural ecology (i.e. food
chains) - that mankind will perish. He cites as fulfillment of this
prophecy contemporary environmental crises such as endangered or extinct
species, global warming, and modern mental illnesses.

Characters

Ishmael

A gorilla who was captured from the wild when young and sent to the zoo. After the zoo sold him to a menagerie, an old Jewish man bought him and could communicate with him through his mind. Ishmael teaches
captivity to the unknown narrator.

Narrator

A man who sought a teacher to teach him how to save the world when he was younger, during the turbulent 1960s. Now an adult, he finds an ad looking for a pupil who wants to save the world. Intrigued because his
childhood question may be answered, but skeptical because he has never
found answers in the past, he goes and finds Ishmael, who teaches him,
as promised, about how to save the world.

Walter Sokolow

A wealthy Jewish merchant whose family was killed in the Holocaust. While visiting a menagerie, he comes across Goliath (Ishmael's given alias at the menagerie). Sokolow buys Ishmael from the zoo and somehow
figures out that he and Ishmael can mentally speak to each other. After
dubbing Ishmael with his new name, the two study a vast array of
subjects together.

Rachel Sokolow

Daughter of Walter Sokolow. She becomes Ishmael's benefactor after her father dies. She supports Ishmael for a span of time, but following her death and the subsequent end to Ishmael's financial support, Ishmael
is forced to move into a situation that ultimately leads to his end.

Film, TV or theatrical adaptations

The end credits for the film Instinct indicate that it is inspired by Ishmael.^[1] In Instinct, Anthony Hopkins plays an imprisoned anthropologist who is interviewed by a psychologist (Cuba Gooding, Jr.).

Daniel Quinn did not approve of the script or movie before transferring the rights, which were transferred as part of the Turner Award. The movie and book share no common story elements, and the
philosophical connection to the book is reduced to some pictorial format
and a few seconds of on-screen dialogue.^[2]

Quinn had some input on the script, but states: "It was not an independent production, it was a studio production, which means the producers had to deliver the goods that presumably work at the box
office. The studio (Touchstone) wanted action, violence, and
conflict---not philosophy---and that's what they got. Those are the
realities of Hollywood."^[3]

The movie received mostly poor or mixed reviews, MetaCritic giving an average rating of only 43^[4]. It was a financial failure as well.^[5] The film won a Genesis Award,^[6] an award that honors films that explore animal issues.

References in popular culture

Eddie Vedder of Pearl Jam has cited the book as an influence on their album, Yield.^[7] Quinn responds to the album's significance in relation to the book on his website.^[8]

New Tribalist Movement

New tribalists believe in a New Tribal Revolution outlined in the Ishmael series by Daniel Quinn. New tribalists believe that the tribe fulfills an
important role in human life, and that the dissolution of tribalism with the spread of civilization has come to threaten the very survival of the species. New tribalists seek to mimic indigenous peoples by organizing their own "tribes" based on underlying principles gleaned from ethnology and anthropological fieldwork.

Quinn argues that this civilization is not working, and if we are to find a way of life that does work, we should draw our basic principles from human societies that are working. Quinn points to indigenous peoples and tribal societies as such examples, and advocates a social revolution—the New Tribal Revolution—to reform society using principles
gleaned from the operation of such cultures.

Activity

An important expression of this movement is the trend towards modern eco-villages. Ecoregional Democracy and peace movement advocates are also often new tribalists as well, as the groups share common ideals.